New Kings and Kingdoms (700–1200 CE)

• How new kingdoms emerged after the Gupta decline.
• The Rajput clans — who they were and how they fought.
• The Chola Empire — administration, art, temple-building.
• How tripartite struggle shaped north India.
• Land grants and how they changed society.

Political landscape after 700 CE

• After Harsha (647 CE), no single power dominated north India for centuries.
• Multiple regional kingdoms rose, competed, and fell.
• Three major powers fought for control of the Gangetic plain:
  • Gurjara-Pratiharas (Rajasthan, western India)
  • Palas (Bengal, Bihar)
  • Rashtrakutas (Deccan)
• This constant three-way struggle is called the Tripartite Struggle (8th–10th century).
• None could win decisively → exhausted all three → made north India vulnerable to later invasions.

The Rajputs

• Rajput = "son of a king" (raja-putra); clans claiming Kshatriya status.
• Origins debated: some were foreign (Hunas, Gurjaras) who were absorbed into Hindu society; others were local chiefs.
• Major Rajput clans and their base:

Rajput warfare and values

• Warfare was central to Rajput identity; elaborate codes of chivalry:
  • Never attack an unarmed enemy.
  • Women and civilians not harmed.
  • Jauhar: when defeat was certain, Rajput women burned themselves rather than be captured — mass self-immolation.
  • Saka: Rajput men fought to the death after women performed jauhar.
• Prashastis (praise poems) and bards (Charans) recorded Rajput glory — also exaggerated heroism.
• Rajputs built strong forts (Chittorgarh, Mehrangarh, Amer) on hilltops → control of trade routes.

How kings legitimised power

• Genealogies: Kings claimed descent from the Sun (Suryavanshi) or Moon (Chandravanshi) — divine origin.
• Land grants (brahmadeya): kings gave land to Brahmins who performed rituals + gave legitimacy in return.
  • Grants recorded on copper plates → important historical source.
  • Brahmins brought peasants, artisans to cultivate → settlement expansion.
• Temples: kings built grand temples to associate themselves with deities → divine kingship.

The Chola Empire (9th–13th century)

The Cholas of Tamil Nadu became the most powerful empire in south India and beyond.

Rise

• Vijayalaya captured Tanjore (~850 CE); revived Chola power.
• Aditya I defeated Pallavas (~897 CE) — Pallavas ended.

Peak — Rajaraja I and Rajendra I

Chola administration

• Nadu: smallest administrative unit (a cluster of villages).
• Mandalam: province; governed by governor appointed by king.
• Village assemblies (ur, sabha, nagaram): elected bodies managing local affairs — remarkably democratic for the period.
  • Sabha: assembly of Brahmin landowners.
  • Ur: assembly of all villagers.
  • Nagaram: assembly of merchants in towns.
• Inscriptions at Uttaramerur (Tamil Nadu) describe detailed election procedures for village assemblies — one of earliest records of local democracy.

Chola art and architecture

• Dravidian temple style at its peak: tall gopuram (gateway tower), large tank, pillared halls (mandapam).
• Brihadeeswarar Temple, Thanjavur (1010 CE): UNESCO World Heritage Site; 66 m tall vimana (tower); built without mortar; 80-tonne granite capstone at top.
• Bronze casting: Cholas pioneered lost-wax (cire-perdue) process for bronze statues.
  • Most famous: Nataraja (dancing Shiva) — symbol of cosmic creation and destruction; now India's most recognisable sculpture.

Decline of Rajput kingdoms

• Internal quarrels between Rajput clans — couldn't unite against external threats.
• Muhammad Ghori's defeat of Prithviraj Chauhan at Second Battle of Tarain (1192) opened north India to Delhi Sultanate.
• Cholas declined by 13th century due to invasions by Pandyas and Hoysalas.

• What was the Tripartite Struggle? Who were the three powers involved?
• Name four Rajput clans and their home regions.
• What was jauhar? What values does it reflect?
• Who built the Brihadeeswarar Temple? What is remarkable about it?
• What were the three types of village assemblies under the Cholas?

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