Pastoralists in the Modern World

• Who are pastoralists? How do they live — seasonal migration patterns.
• Case study India: Gujjars, Bakarwals, Dhangars, Raikas — where they graze, when they move.
• How colonial rule disrupted pastoral life in India.
• Case study Africa: Maasai — land loss and colonial policy.
• How pastoralists have adapted to survive today.

Who are pastoralists?

Pastoralists are communities whose main livelihood is rearing animals (cattle, sheep, goats, camels, yaks). They move seasonally — following grass and water — a practice called transhumance.

They do NOT just wander randomly. They follow fixed seasonal routes passed down for generations.

Pastoralists in India

Himalayan pastoralists

Peninsular and plateau pastoralists

Colonial disruption of pastoral life

Waste Land Rules (mid-19th century)

• Colonial government declared uncultivated land "waste" — available for takeover.
• Much of this was pastoral grazing land.
• Converted to farms → pastoralists lost access to traditional pastures.

Forest Acts

• Forests reserved → pastoralists could no longer enter for grazing.
• Seasonal movement routes blocked.

Criminal Tribes Act, 1871

• Certain nomadic communities (including some pastoralists) declared "criminal by birth" — required to report to police regularly.
• Criminalised their mobile lifestyle.

Grazing Tax

• Colonial government imposed tax on animals that grazed on government land.
• Tax collectors would count animals at the dang (camp) and issue passes.
• Pastoralists had to pay even for land they traditionally used free.

Canal Colonisation

• Canals in Punjab made dry land cultivable → new farms displaced pastoralists.

Net effect: pastoral communities shrank, routes shortened, herds reduced, many forced into settled farming.

Pastoralists in Africa — The Maasai

Who are the Maasai?

• Pastoralists from East Africa (Kenya and Tanzania).
• Traditionally grazed cattle across a vast territory straddling both countries.
• Cattle were central to identity, wealth, and ritual life.

Colonial impact on Maasai

Results for the Maasai

• Herds declined sharply — less land, drought vulnerability, no migration flexibility.
• Traditional social structure changed:
  • Elders (who managed land and cattle) lost authority.
  • Young warriors (ilkiama) returned from WW1 labour enriched → new class of traders and small farmers emerged.
• Impoverishment of those without animals; growing inequality within Maasai society.

How pastoralists adapted

• Reduced herd sizes; switched to animals suited to smaller land.
• Some took up farming or casual labour.
• Marketed animals and dairy products to urban consumers.
• Lobbied governments for land rights (India: Forest Rights Act 2006 helps some).
• Tourism: Maasai culture → eco-tourism income.

• What is transhumance? Why do pastoralists migrate seasonally?
• Describe the seasonal movement of Gujjar Bakarwals.
• What were the Waste Land Rules? How did they harm pastoralists?
• What was the Criminal Tribes Act?
• Explain how British colonial policy reduced Maasai grazing land.

Open the Practice tab for graded questions on Pastoralists in the Modern World.