Working of Institutions

• India's three branches: Legislature, Executive, Judiciary.
• Parliament — Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha; how laws are made.
• President — powers and role; how elected.
• Prime Minister and Cabinet — real executive power.
• Political executive vs permanent executive (civil servants).
• How the three branches check and balance each other.

Three branches of government

Parliament

India has a bicameral (two-house) Parliament:

Lok Sabha (House of the People)

• 545 seats (543 elected + 2 Anglo-Indian nominated; now only 543 elected).
• Members: Members of Parliament (MPs) elected by citizens through FPTP.
• Term: 5 years (unless dissolved earlier).
• More powerful house — controls money bills; government must have majority here.
• Speaker presides.

Rajya Sabha (Council of States)

• 245 seats (233 elected by state legislatures + 12 nominated by President for arts/science/etc.).
• Term: 6 years; one-third retire every 2 years (permanent house — never dissolved).
• Vice President is ex-officio Chairman.
• Represents states; can delay but not block most bills.

How a bill becomes law

1. Introduced in either house (money bills only in Lok Sabha).
2. First reading: title read; no debate.
3. Second reading: referred to committee; clause-by-clause debate.
4. Third reading: final vote.
5. Passed by both houses (joint sitting if disagreement on non-money bills).
6. Sent to President for assent.
7. President gives assent → becomes Act of Parliament.

Money Bill: only introduced in Lok Sabha; Rajya Sabha can only delay 14 days; President cannot withhold assent.

Parliamentary sessions

• Budget session (Feb–May): most important; budget presented.
• Monsoon session (July–Aug).
• Winter session (Nov–Dec).
• Question Hour: first hour of each session; MPs question ministers → accountability.
• Zero Hour: immediately after Question Hour; MPs raise urgent matters without notice.

The President

• Ceremonial head of state; executive power actually exercised by PM + Cabinet.
• Elected by: Electoral College = elected MPs + elected MLAs (state legislators); proportional representation with single transferable vote.
• Term: 5 years; can be re-elected.
• Powers:
  • Appoints PM (leader of majority in Lok Sabha).
  • Appoints governors, judges of Supreme Court and High Courts.
  • Summons, prorogues, dissolves Parliament.
  • Pocket veto: can return a bill (except money bill) for reconsideration; if Parliament passes again, must assent.
  • President's Rule (Article 356): can impose direct central rule in a state if constitutional machinery fails.
  • Commander-in-Chief of armed forces (nominal).

Prime Minister and Cabinet

• PM = head of government; real executive power.
• Leader of the party/coalition with majority in Lok Sabha.
• Appoints: Cabinet ministers; their portfolios; can remove them.
• Chairs Cabinet meetings.
• Cabinet = small group of senior ministers who take major decisions collectively.
• Council of Ministers: larger body including Cabinet + Ministers of State + Deputy Ministers.
• Collective responsibility: Cabinet must publicly support all decisions or resign.

Civil Service — permanent executive

• IAS (Indian Administrative Service), IPS (Indian Police Service), IFS (Indian Foreign Service) = top civil services.
• Recruited by UPSC (Union Public Service Commission) through competitive exam.
• Permanent (not changed with each election) → provides continuity.
• Political executive (ministers) = elected; set policy.
• Permanent executive (civil servants) = implement policy; advise ministers.

Checks and balances

Coalition government

• When no single party gets majority in Lok Sabha → parties form a coalition.
• PM from largest party; Cabinet shared among allies.
• Coalition governments are often less stable — allies can withdraw support.
• India has had coalition governments most of the time since 1989.

• What is a bicameral legislature? Name the two houses of India's Parliament.
• How is the President of India elected? What are three of the President's powers?
• What is collective responsibility of the Cabinet?
• Explain the difference between political executive and permanent executive.
• How do Parliament and the Judiciary check the power of the executive?

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